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Europe and nationalism: A country-by-country guide Europe and nationalism: A country-by-country guide
(7 months later)
Across Europe, nationalist and far-right parties have made significant electoral gains. With European elections weeks away, nationalist and far-right parties across Europe are sensing an opportunity.
Some have taken office, others have become the main opposition voice, and even those yet to gain a political foothold have forced centrist leaders to adapt. A boom in voter support has led to the far right sharing power in Austria and the nationalist League forming a populist coalition in Italy. Now, some of these parties are attempting to organise into a pan-European power bloc.
In part, this can be seen as a backlash against the political establishment in the wake of the financial and migrant crises, but the wave of discontent also taps into long-standing fears about globalisation and a dilution of national identity. In part, this can be seen as a backlash against the political establishment, but the wave of discontent also taps into concerns about globalisation, immigration, a dilution of national identity and the EU itself.
Although the parties involved span a broad political spectrum, there are some common themes, such as hostility to immigration, anti-Islamic rhetoric and Euroscepticism. Poll success in the 23-26 May elections could have a major impact on the balance of power in the European Parliament.
So where does this leave Europe's political landscape? So where in Europe's political landscape do nationalists hold sway?
ItalyItaly
Inconclusive elections and months of uncertainty have culminated in two populist parties - the anti-establishment Five Star Movement and right-wing League - forming a coalition government. Italy's Matteo Salvini has emerged as the dominant figure trying to unify Europe's nationalist parties at a European level. A former MEP himself, his right-wing League party formed a government in June 2018 with the anti-establishment Five Star Movement after an inconclusive election.
Their rise from the political fringes comes in a country badly hit by the 2008 financial crisis and which then became the main destination for North African migrants. The League's rise to power coincided with the aftermath of the financial crisis and a big influx of sub-Saharan migrants from North Africa in 2016. As interior minister, Mr Salvini spearheaded the new government's anti-immigration stance, turning away humanitarian rescue ships from Italian ports.
Formerly known as the Northern League, The League has switched focus from its initial goal of creating a separate northern state to leading a country it once wanted to leave. His party has long had a Eurosceptic reputation, and a number of its candidates for the European elections want to leave the euro.
Their joint programme for government includes plans for mass deportations for undocumented migrants, in line with The League's strong anti-immigration stance. Mr Salvini formed an alliance with like-minded parties this month.
Visiting Sicily, Italy's new interior minister and League leader Matteo Salvini said the island must stop being "the refugee camp of Europe". How many parties will ultimately join up is unclear, but Italy's League has found common cause with Germany's main opposition party, AfD, as well as the Finns Party, the Danish People's Party, Austria's Freedom Party, France's National Rally and several others.
Both parties are unhappy with the euro, and with few ruling out more elections the next vote could provide a major headache for the European Union. Earlier this month, French far-right leader Marine Le Pen posted a picture with Mr Salvini, saying they were in great shape and ready to win the May 26 elections.
GermanyGermany
Formed just five years ago, in 2017 the far-right Alternative for Germany (AfD) entered the federal parliament for the first time. Formed just six years ago, in 2017 the far-right Alternative for Germany (AfD) entered the federal parliament for the first time with 12.6% of the vote, becoming Germany's biggest opposition party.
From its beginnings as an anti-euro party, it has pushed for strict anti-immigrant policies and tapped into anxieties over the influence of Islam. Leaders have been accused of downplaying Nazi atrocities. From its beginnings as an anti-euro party, it has pushed for strict anti-immigration policies, tapped into anxieties over the influence of Islam and broken decades-old anti-Nazi taboos. It enjoyed a surge in popularity as Germany allowed in over a million undocumented migrants.
Their success has been interpreted as a sign of discontent with Chancellor Angela Merkel's open-door policy for refugees. Despite attempts by Chancellor Angela Merkel to toughen her stance on immigration, AfD has added to its electoral success and now has representatives in every state parliament.
At the height of the migrant crisis, Mrs Merkel lifted border controls and almost a million people arrived in 2015, many of them Muslims from Syria, Iraq and Afghanistan. AfD is also a Eurosceptic party and Nigel Farage, who has returned to the political stage to lead the UK's Brexit Party, took part in its 2017 election campaign.
Despite her CDU/CSU bloc seeing its worst result in almost 70 years, last year's elections were enough for Mrs Merkel to secure a fourth term as chancellor and form another coalition with the SPD party. For AfD, their status as the largest opposition party gives them their biggest platform yet. His former party, UKIP, came top in European Parliament elections in the UK in 2014, but the Brexit vote in 2016 led to most of its MEPs leaving. UKIP has no MPs in the UK parliament.
But the AfD's rise has also seen a change in tone from Mrs Merkel - in her first major speech of her new term she said that the "humanitarian exception" of 2015 would not been repeated, as well as promising to beef up border security and boost deportations. Spain
One of the big political stories in Spain has been the sudden rise of the far-right Vox party, which is expected to enter parliament for the first time in elections on Sunday.
Vox styles itself as defending the unity of the Spanish state, with a promise to deport illegal immigrants and repeal laws against gender violence. It has made major gains by calling for a suspension of autonomy for the north-eastern Catalonia region, after separatists failed in their push for independence in October 2017.
Many believed that Spaniards would never endorse a far-right party due to its history under dictator Francisco Franco, who died in 1975. Yet Vox won a dozen seats in Andalusia's regional parliament late last year, and entered government there with other right-leaning parties.
AustriaAustria
A far-right party in neighbouring Austria has enjoyed even greater success than the AfD. The Freedom Party (FPÖ) became the only far-right party in power in Western Europe when it joined a coalition as junior partner with conservative Chancellor Sebastian Kurz in 2017. His People's Party, along with the centre-left Social Democrats, have long dominated Austrian politics.
Last year saw the Freedom Party (FPÖ) become junior partner in a coalition with the government of Conservative Chancellor Sebastian Kurz. The Conservatives along with the centre-left Social Democrats have long dominated Austrian politics. As in Germany, the migrant crisis that unfolded in 2015 is also seen as key to the FPÖ's success, and an issue they long campaigned on.
The FPÖ had already only narrowly lost a presidential election in which the two main centrist parties did not even make the second round. Since it came to power, the Freedom Party has become caught up in a series of race rows. Its leader Heinz-Christian Strache was earlier this month accused of linking on his Facebook page to a website accused of Holocaust denial.
As in Germany, the migrant crisis is also seen as key to their success, and an issue they long campaigned on.
Mr Kurz has vowed a hard-line on immigration; during the campaign the FPÖ even accused him of stealing their policies.
Since the election there have been proposals to ban headscarves for girls aged under 10 in schools and plans to seize migrants' phones.
Sweden
The anti-immigration Sweden Democrats (SD) made significant gains in the 2018 general election.
They won about 18% of the vote, up from 12.9% last time.
The party has its roots in neo-Nazism, but it rebranded itself in recent years and first entered parliament in 2010.
Meanwhile, the centre-left Social Democrat party of Prime Minister Stefan Lofven has seen support ebb away.
The Social Democrats are a party associated with generous social welfare and tolerance of minorities, while the SD opposes multiculturalism and wants strict immigration controls.
Like many of the countries featured here, though, the picture is complex. Sweden has welcomed more asylum seekers per capita than any other European country and has one of the most positive attitudes towards migrants.
FranceFrance
Despite the efforts of leader Marine Le Pen to make the far-right National Front palatable to France's mainstream, she was comprehensively defeated by Emmanuel Macron for the presidency in May 2017. Despite the efforts of leader Marine Le Pen to make the far right palatable to France's mainstream, she was comprehensively defeated by Emmanuel Macron for the presidency in May 2017.
Marine Le Pen is anti-EU, opposed to the euro and blames Brussels for mass immigration. Her far-right party, the National Front (FN), failed to break through in parliamentary elections the following month.
In 2010 she told FN supporters that the sight of Muslims praying in the street was similar to the Nazi occupation in World War Two. So the FN became the National Rally (Rassemblement National) and latest opinion polls give the rebranded party a lead over President Macron's ruling liberal LREM ahead of the European elections.
Since their loss in the presidential election, the FN suffered an underwhelming result in parliamentary elections, winning a small handful of seats while Mr Macron's party dominated. Ms Le Pen's party is opposed to the euro and blames the EU for mass immigration, and she has found a common voice with other nationalist and far-right parties in Europe.
More recently the party has renamed itself as the National Rally, with Ms Le Pen saying she would seek to gain power through forming coalitions with allies. She appeared alongside Dutch anti-Islam and anti-EU politician Geert Wilders on Thursday, talking of a "democratic movement of patriots".
Although many are sceptical that any pan-EU alliance of nationalist parties would work, Marine Le Pen is expected to take part in a pre-election rally with Italian's Matteo Salvini and other parties in Milan next month.
Sweden
The anti-immigration Sweden Democrats (SD) made significant gains in the 2018 general election, winning about 18% of the vote.
The party has its roots in neo-Nazism, but it rebranded itself in recent years and first entered parliament in 2010. It opposes multiculturalism and wants strict immigration controls.
As with many of the countries featured here, though, the picture is complex. Sweden has welcomed more asylum seekers per capita than any other European country and has one of the most positive attitudes towards migrants.
Finland
The far-right Finns Party were narrowly beaten into second place in the April 2019 general election, coming within 0.2% of the left-wing Social Democratic Party (SDP).
Its success was built on two policies: opposition to immigration and a rejection of ambitious policies aimed at combating climate change.
It was an extraordinary recovery for a party that had also done well in the previous vote in 2015 but had since faded in popularity because of party splits.
"I could not expect a result like this, and no-one could," party leader Jussi Halla-aho said - putting the party forward for negotiations for government for a second time.
Estonia
Estonia's far-right Conservative People's Party of Estonia (EKRE) won its first seats in parliament in the 2015 election.
Four years later, EKRE has more than doubled their share of the vote to nearly 18%, making it the third-largest party. It used that power to negotiate a place in government, as it joined fellow runners-up the Centre and Pro Patria parties to stop liberal leader Kaja Kallas from becoming Estonia's first woman prime minister.
EKRE campaigned on an anti-immigration platform, and is also critical of same-sex marriage. Its leader, Martin Helme, once said that only white people should be allowed to move to Estonia.
HungaryHungary
In April, Hungary's Prime Minister Viktor Orban secured a third term in office with a landslide victory in an election dominated by immigration. In 2018, Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orban secured a third term in office with a landslide victory in an election dominated by immigration.
The victory, he said, gave Hungarians "the opportunity to defend themselves and to defend Hungary".The victory, he said, gave Hungarians "the opportunity to defend themselves and to defend Hungary".
Mr Orban has long presented himself as the defender of Hungary and Europe against Muslim migrants, once warning of the threat of "a Europe with a mixed population and no sense of identity", comments that led to him being called a racist. Mr Orban has long presented himself as the defender of Hungary and Europe against Muslim migrants, once warning of the threat of "a Europe with a mixed population and no sense of identity".
He is arguably the leading voice among the Visegrad countries in Central Europe - Hungary, Poland, the Czech Republic and Slovakia - that oppose EU plans to compel countries to accept migrants under a quota system. But his Fidesz party remains inside Europe's mainstream centre-right grouping, the EPP. In March 2019, the EPP suspended the party because of its anti-EU stance. So far Mr Orban has been keen to remain under the centre-right umbrella, but he is due to meet Matteo Salvini next week.
Hungary has two nationalist parties - with Jobbik attempting to escape its far-right past and appeal to centrist voters - and gaining 19% of the vote in 2018.
SloveniaSlovenia
Although it fell a long way short of a majority, the anti-immigrant Slovenian Democratic Party (SDS) was the largest party in this year's general election.Although it fell a long way short of a majority, the anti-immigrant Slovenian Democratic Party (SDS) was the largest party in this year's general election.
The party is led by former Prime Minister Janez Jansa, who like the Visegrad leaders opposes migrant quotas, and has said he wants Slovenia to "become a country that will put the wellbeing and security of Slovenians first". The party is led by former Prime Minister Janez Jansa, a supporter of Hungary's Viktor Orban. He has said he wants Slovenia to "become a country that will put the wellbeing and security of Slovenians first".
During the campaign he formed an alliance with Mr Orban, borrowing his tactic of stirring fears about migrants.
Slovenia, though, only accepted 150 asylum applications last year. During the migrant crisis most of those on the move used the Balkans and Central Europe as transit towards the West.
Poland
Another party that has condemned the EU's handling of the migrant crisis, the conservative Law and Justice party secured a strong win in 2015 elections.
Some of the party's most high-profile policies, such as taking control of state media and judicial reforms that allow the government to sack and appoint judges, have alarmed the EU.
Law and Justice was also behind a controversial law making it illegal to accuse the Polish nation or state of complicity in the Nazi Holocaust, which some saw as an attempt to whitewash the role of some individuals in Nazi atrocities.
Poland and Hungary have offered each other political support, such as over migrant quotas and Viktor Orban expressing "solidarity" with Poland in its battle over court reforms.
Elsewhere in Europe...Elsewhere in Europe...