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Overlooked No More: Alan Turing, Condemned Code Breaker and Computer Visionary Overlooked No More: Alan Turing, Condemned Code Breaker and Computer Visionary
(about 3 hours later)
Overlooked is a series of obituaries about remarkable people whose deaths, beginning in 1851, went unreported in The Times. This month we’re adding the stories of important L.G.B.T.Q. figures.Overlooked is a series of obituaries about remarkable people whose deaths, beginning in 1851, went unreported in The Times. This month we’re adding the stories of important L.G.B.T.Q. figures.
By Alan CowellBy Alan Cowell
LONDON — His genius embraced the first visions of modern computing and produced seminal insights into what became known as “artificial intelligence.” As one of the most influential code breakers of World War II, his cryptology yielded intelligence believed to have hastened the Allied victory.LONDON — His genius embraced the first visions of modern computing and produced seminal insights into what became known as “artificial intelligence.” As one of the most influential code breakers of World War II, his cryptology yielded intelligence believed to have hastened the Allied victory.
But, at his death several years later, much of his secretive wartime accomplishments remained classified, far from public view in a nation seized by the security concerns of the Cold War. Instead, by the narrow standards of his day, his reputation was sullied.But, at his death several years later, much of his secretive wartime accomplishments remained classified, far from public view in a nation seized by the security concerns of the Cold War. Instead, by the narrow standards of his day, his reputation was sullied.
On June 7, 1954, Alan Turing, a British mathematician who has since been acknowledged as one the most innovative and powerful thinkers of the 20th century — sometimes called the progenitor of modern computing — died as a criminal, having been convicted under Victorian laws as a homosexual and forced to endure chemical castration. Britain didn’t take its first steps toward decriminalizing homosexuality until 1967.On June 7, 1954, Alan Turing, a British mathematician who has since been acknowledged as one the most innovative and powerful thinkers of the 20th century — sometimes called the progenitor of modern computing — died as a criminal, having been convicted under Victorian laws as a homosexual and forced to endure chemical castration. Britain didn’t take its first steps toward decriminalizing homosexuality until 1967.
Only in 2009 did the government apologize for his treatment.Only in 2009 did the government apologize for his treatment.
“We’re sorry — you deserved so much better,” said Gordon Brown, then the prime minister. “Alan and the many thousands of other gay men who were convicted, as he was, under homophobic laws were treated terribly.”“We’re sorry — you deserved so much better,” said Gordon Brown, then the prime minister. “Alan and the many thousands of other gay men who were convicted, as he was, under homophobic laws were treated terribly.”
And only in 2013 did Queen Elizabeth II grant him a royal pardon, 59 years after a housekeeper found his body at his home at Wilmslow, near Manchester in northwest England. And only in 2013 did Queen Elizabeth II grant Turing a royal pardon, 59 years after a housekeeper found his body at his home at Wilmslow, near Manchester, in northwest England.
A coroner found that he had died of cyanide poisoning and determined he had taken his own life “while the balance of his mind was disturbed.” A coroner determined that he had died of cyanide poisoning and that he had taken his own life “while the balance of his mind was disturbed.”
At his side lay a half-eaten apple. Biographers speculated he ingested the poison by dousing the apple with cyanide and eating it to disguise the toxin’s taste. Some of those who studied his personality or knew him, most notably his mother, Ethel Turing, challenged the official verdict of suicide, arguing that he had poisoned himself accidentally. At his side lay a half-eaten apple. Biographers speculated that he had ingested the poison by dousing the apple with cyanide and eating it to disguise the toxin’s taste. Some of those who studied his personality or knew him, most notably his mother, Ethel Turing, challenged the official verdict of suicide, arguing that he had poisoned himself accidentally.
To this day Turing is feted in his own country and among a broad society of scientists as a pillar of achievement, fusing brilliance and eccentricity, at ease in the abstruse realms of mathematics and cryptography but awkward in social discourse, a genius brought low by the hostile society into which he was born. To this day Turing is feted in his own country and among a broad society of scientists as a pillar of achievement who had fused brilliance and eccentricity, had moved comfortably in the abstruse realms of mathematics and cryptography but awkwardly in social settings, and had been brought low by the hostile society into which he was born.
“He was a national treasure and we hounded him to his death,” said John Graham-Cumming, a computer scientist who campaigned for Turing to be pardoned. “He was a national treasure, and we hounded him to his death,” said John Graham-Cumming, a computer scientist who campaigned for Turing to be pardoned.
Above all, Turing’s name is associated for many people with the top secret wartime operations of Britain’s code-breakers at Bletchley Park, a sprawling estate north of London, where he oversaw and inspired the effort to decrypt ciphers generated by Nazi Germany’s Enigma machine that had once seemed impenetrable. The Germans themselves regarded the codes as unbreakable. Above all, Turing’s name is associated for many people with the top-secret wartime operations of Britain’s code-breakers at Bletchley Park, a sprawling estate north of London, where he oversaw and inspired the effort to decrypt ciphers generated by Nazi Germany’s Enigma machine, which had once seemed impenetrable. The Germans themselves regarded the codes as unbreakable.
At the time German submarines were prowling the Atlantic; their prey were Allied ships carrying vital cargo for the war effort. At the time, German submarines were prowling the Atlantic, hunting Allied ships carrying vital cargo for the war effort.
The convoys were critical for building military strength in Britain, eventually enabling the Allies to undertake the D-Day landings in Normandy in 1944 that heralded the collapse of Nazi Germany the following year. The convoys were critical for building military strength in Britain, eventually enabling the Allies to undertake the D-Day landings in Normandy in 1944 that heralded the collapse of Nazi Germany the next year.
Only by charting the submarines’ movements could Allied forces change the course of their convoys, and for that they relied on the cryptologists of Bletchley Park to decode messages betraying the Germans’ deployments.Only by charting the submarines’ movements could Allied forces change the course of their convoys, and for that they relied on the cryptologists of Bletchley Park to decode messages betraying the Germans’ deployments.
The enduring fascination with Turing’s story inspired the 2014 movie “The Imitation Game,” starring Benedict Cumberbatch and Keira Knightley. But his scientific range went far beyond cinematic drama, laying down principles that have molded the historical record of the relationship between humans and the machines they have created to solve their problems. The enduring fascination with Turing’s story inspired the 2014 movie “The Imitation Game,” starring Benedict Cumberbatch and Keira Knightley. But his scientific range went far beyond the limits of cinematic drama: He laid down principles that have molded the historical record of the relationship between humans and the machines they have created to solve their problems.
Even before World War II, Turing was making breakthroughs.Even before World War II, Turing was making breakthroughs.
Credit for the creation of the first functioning computer in 1946 went to John Presper Eckert and John W. Mauchly, two researchers who worked at the University of Pennsylvania during World War II, for their machine, the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, or Eniac. Credit for the creation of the first functioning computer in 1946 went to John Presper Eckert and John W. Mauchly, researchers who worked at the University of Pennsylvania during World War II, for their machine, the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, or Eniac.
But Turing’s notions preceded the Eniac. He conceived what became known as the Universal Turing machine, which envisioned “one machine for all possible tasks” — essentially computers as we know them today, said Andrew Hodges, Turing’s biographer, in a condensed version of his 1983 book, “Alan Turing: The Enigma.” But Turing’s notions preceded the Eniac. He conceived what became known as the universal Turing machine, which envisioned “one machine for all possible tasks” — essentially computers as we know them today, Andrew Hodges, Turing’s biographer, wrote in a condensed version of his 1983 book, “Alan Turing: The Enigma.”
Turing’s vision, Hodges said, was that one machine could “be turned to any well-defined task by being supplied with the appropriate program.”Turing’s vision, Hodges said, was that one machine could “be turned to any well-defined task by being supplied with the appropriate program.”
“The Universal Turing machine naturally exploits what was later seen as the ‘stored program’ concept essential to the modern computer: It embodies the crucial 20th century insight that symbols representing instructions are no different in kind from symbols representing numbers.” He added, “The universal Turing machine naturally exploits what was later seen as the ‘stored program’ concept essential to the modern computer: It embodies the crucial 20th century insight that symbols representing instructions are no different in kind from symbols representing numbers.”
Later, technology that emerged from the Manhattan Project, the United States-led effort to develop the atom bomb, also relied on Turing’s ideas.Later, technology that emerged from the Manhattan Project, the United States-led effort to develop the atom bomb, also relied on Turing’s ideas.
“What had begun as a British idea was scaled up to industrial size by the Americans,” David Kaiser, a professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, wrote in 2012 in the London Review of Books. “What had begun as a British idea was scaled up to industrial size by the Americans,” David Kaiser, a professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, wrote in 2012 in The London Review of Books.
His postwar work at the University of Manchester, on the first functioning British computers, was also significant; it reflected the emerging power of electronic computing in the Cold War race for nuclear supremacy. And he remained fascinated by the interplay between human thought processes and their computerized inventions. Even in 1944, Hodges said he had spoken to a colleague about “building a brain.” Turing’s postwar work at the University of Manchester, on the first functioning British computers, was also significant: It reflected the emerging power of electronic computing in the Cold War race for nuclear supremacy. And he remained fascinated by the interplay between human thought processes and their computerized inventions. Even in 1944, Hodges wrote, Turing had spoken to a colleague about “building a brain.”
In an article published in 1950 in the academic journal “Mind,” he developed a method that came to be known as the “Turing Test,” a sort of thought experiment to determine whether a computer could pass as a human. As part of his experiment, a human interrogator would ask questions and try to figure out whether the answers came from a computer or from a fellow human. In an article published in 1950 in the academic journal Mind, Turing developed a method that came to be known as the “Turing Test,” a sort of thought experiment to determine whether a computer could pass as a human. As part of his experiment, a human interrogator would ask questions and try to figure out whether the answers had come from a computer or a human.
Many years later, President Barack Obama placed Turing in a trans-Atlantic pantheon of innovation and discovery. “From Newton and Darwin to Edison and Einstein; from Alan Turing to Steve Jobs, we have led the world in our commitment to science and cutting-edge research,” Obama said during a visit to London in 2011. Many years later, on a visit to London, President Barack Obama placed Turing in a trans-Atlantic pantheon of innovation and discovery, saying, “From Newton and Darwin to Edison and Einstein, from Alan Turing to Steve Jobs, we have led the world in our commitment to science and cutting-edge research.” Obama said during a visit to London in 2011.
Alan Mathison Turing was born in London on June 23, 1912, the second of two sons. His parents, Ethel Sara Stoney and Julius Mathison Turing, had met in imperial India, where his father was a senior colonial administrator. After Alan’s birth they left him and his brother, John, in the care of foster parents in England while they returned to India so Alan’s father could continue his work. Alan Mathison Turing was born in London on June 23, 1912, the second of two sons. His parents, Ethel Sara Stoney and Julius Mathison Turing, had met in imperial India, where his father was a senior colonial administrator. After Alan’s birth they left him and his brother, John, in the care of foster parents in England while they returned to India so that Alan’s father could continue his work.
“Alan Turing’s story was not one of family or tradition but of an isolated and autonomous mind,” Hodges wrote.“Alan Turing’s story was not one of family or tradition but of an isolated and autonomous mind,” Hodges wrote.
In his early days, his education reflected the overwhelming social requisite of his class to secure a place at a reputable, private boarding school and, at age 13, he enrolled at Sherborne School in southern England, where his fascination with science raised alarms in an educational system based on the study of what were called the classics — works in Latin and ancient Greek. In his early days, his education reflected the overwhelming social requisite of his class to secure a place at a reputable private boarding school. Alan, at age 13, enrolled at Sherborne School, in southern England, where his fascination with science raised alarms in an educational system based on the study of what were called the classics — works in Latin and ancient Greek.
“If he is to be solely a scientific specialist, he is wasting his time at a public school,” Nowell Smith, Sherborne’s headmaster, wrote to his parents, as recorded in Hodges’s book.“If he is to be solely a scientific specialist, he is wasting his time at a public school,” Nowell Smith, Sherborne’s headmaster, wrote to his parents, as recorded in Hodges’s book.
Nonetheless he secured a place at King’s College in Cambridge to study mathematics, graduating in 1934 with a first class honors degree. With remarkable academic precocity he was made a fellow of the college in 1935. A year later, he published the groundbreaking paper “On Computable Numbers, With an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem” (or “decidability problem”), a reference in German to a celebrated riddle that the American logician Alonzo Church had also explained. Nonetheless, he secured a place at King’s College in Cambridge to study mathematics, graduating in 1934 with a first class honors degree. With remarkable academic precocity he was made a fellow of the college in 1935. A year later, he published the groundbreaking paper “On Computable Numbers, With an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem” (or “decidability problem”), a reference in German to a celebrated riddle that the American logician Alonzo Church had also explained.
Both Turing and Church reached the same conclusion, a basis for computer science — that there is no single algorithm that could determine the truth or falsity of any statement in formal logic — but Turing’s thinking was more direct. Both Turing and Church reached the same conclusion — a basis for computer science — that there is no single algorithm that could determine the truth or falsity of any statement in formal logic.
Turing completed a doctoral thesis at Princeton in 1938 before returning to Cambridge. With Britain’s declaration of war on Germany in September 1939, he joined the Bletchley Park code breakers at the Government Code and Cypher School, working in an array of makeshift huts clustered around a large mansion.Turing completed a doctoral thesis at Princeton in 1938 before returning to Cambridge. With Britain’s declaration of war on Germany in September 1939, he joined the Bletchley Park code breakers at the Government Code and Cypher School, working in an array of makeshift huts clustered around a large mansion.
Their greatest initial challenge was figuring out the method of encryption of the German Enigma device, which was invented 20 years earlier by Arthur Scherbius, a German electrical engineer who had patented it as a civilian machine to encrypt commercial messages. The machine worked by encoding letters entered on a typewriter-like keyboard via a series of rotors to a light board showing the coded equivalents. The machine was said to be capable of generating almost 159 quintillion permutations. Their greatest initial challenge was figuring out the method of encryption of the German Enigma device, which was invented 20 years earlier by Arthur Scherbius, a German electrical engineer who had patented it as a civilian machine to encrypt commercial messages. The machine worked by entering letters on a typewriter-like keyboard and then encoding them through a series of rotors to a light board, which showed the coded equivalents. The machine was said to be capable of generating almost 159 quintillion permutations.
The British were helped initially by a Polish mathematician who had been studying the Enigma machine and who provided vital details after Hitler’s forces invaded their country in 1939. But, under the direction of Turing and another Cambridge-educated mathematician, W.G. Welchman, the Bletchley Park code breakers greatly expanded and accelerated their efforts. Using a huge contraption called the Bombe, they mimicked the operations of the Enigma machine to break its codes. The British were helped initially by a Polish mathematician who had been studying the Enigma machine and had provided vital details after Hitler’s forces invaded Poland in 1939. But, under the direction of Turing and another Cambridge-educated mathematician, W.G. Welchman, the Bletchley Park code breakers greatly expanded and accelerated those early efforts. Using a huge contraption called the Bombe, they mimicked the operations of the Enigma machine to break its codes.
“The critical factor was Turing’s brilliant mechanization of subtle logical deductions,” said Hodges, the biographer. “The critical factor was Turing’s brilliant mechanization of subtle logical deductions,” the biographer Hodges, wrote.
In 1942, Turing was assigned to visit the United States for several months of high-level consultations on the encryption of conversations between President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston S. Churchill. His wartime work earned him a high civilian award, and he was named an Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire.In 1942, Turing was assigned to visit the United States for several months of high-level consultations on the encryption of conversations between President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston S. Churchill. His wartime work earned him a high civilian award, and he was named an Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire.
In the postwar years, Turing’s fascination with computers led him to design the Automatic Computing Engine. Although it was never built, Turing believed that “the computer would offer unlimited scope for practical progress toward embodying intelligence in an artificial form,” Hodges said. In the postwar years, Turing’s fascination with computers led him to design the Automatic Computing Engine. Although it was never built, Turing believed that “the computer would offer unlimited scope for practical progress toward embodying intelligence in an artificial form,” Hodges wrote.
In May 1948, Turing moved to Manchester University’s computing laboratory and bought a house in nearby Wilmslow. His enthusiasms were long-distance running; his work on various scientific themes including morphogenesis, the theory of growth and form in biology; and his continued secret ties to Britain’s postwar code breakers. In May 1948, Turing moved to Manchester University’s computing laboratory and bought a house in nearby Wilmslow. Among his enthusiasms were his work on various scientific themes, including morphogenesis, the theory of growth and form in biology; his continued secret ties to Britain’s postwar code breakers; and long-distance running.
He was also, Hodges said, beginning to explore the homosexual identity he had previously sought to deflect at Bletchley Park when he proposed marriage in 1941 to Joan Clarke, a cryptanalyst. He later withdrew the offer some time after explaining his sexuality and the two remained friends. He was also, Hodges said, beginning to explore the homosexual identity he had hidden when he proposed marriage in 1941 to Joan Clarke, a Bletchley Park cryptanalyst. He later withdrew the offer after explaining his sexuality to her, and the two remained friends.
About 10 years later the police were investigating a burglary at his home when he admitted to having had a physical relationship with a man named Arnold Murray. Murray told Turing he knew the thief’s identity and in their questioning, detectives asked Turing about the nature of his relationship to Murray. About 10 years later, the police were investigating a burglary at his home when he admitted to having had a physical relationship with a man named Arnold Murray. Murray told Turing that he knew the thief’s identity. and in their questioning, detectives asked Turing about his relationship to Murray.
In March of 1952, Turing and Murray were charged with “gross indecency” and both pleaded guilty in court. Murray was given a conditional discharge but Turing was ordered to undergo chemical castration by taking doses of estrogen, a female hormone, to reduce sex drive. In March 1952, Turing and Murray were charged with “gross indecency,” and both pleaded guilty in court. Murray was given a conditional discharge, but Turing was ordered to undergo chemical castration by taking doses of estrogen, a female hormone, to reduce sex drive.
Two years later, the motive for his apparent suicide at age 41 remained unclear and left many questions. At the time, Hodges said, known homosexuals were denied security clearances, which meant Turing couldn’t be involved in secret work during the Cold War, leaving him excluded and embittered. While a coroner deemed his death a suicide, the telltale apple at Turing’s side was never forensically examined. Two years later, the motive for his apparent suicide, at age 41, remained unclear and left many questions. At the time, Hodges wrote, known homosexuals were denied security clearances, which meant that Turing could not be involved in secret work during the Cold War, leaving him excluded and embittered. While a coroner deemed the death a suicide, the telltale apple at Turing’s side was never forensically examined.
“Eccentric, solitary, gloomy, vivacious, resigned, angry, eager, dissatisfied — these had always been his ever-varying characteristics,” Hodges wrote, “and despite the strength that he showed the world in coping with outrageous fortune, no one could safely have predicted his future course.”“Eccentric, solitary, gloomy, vivacious, resigned, angry, eager, dissatisfied — these had always been his ever-varying characteristics,” Hodges wrote, “and despite the strength that he showed the world in coping with outrageous fortune, no one could safely have predicted his future course.”