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Even Daleks need a science policy Even Daleks need a science policy
(about 3 hours later)
We first meet the Daleks of Skaro as survivors of a devastating nuclear war who have retreated into protective mechanized shells. We later learn that the tank-like shells and the extreme xenophobia exhibited by the creatures within them are both the result of technological intervention by an archetypal mad scientist named Davros. Davros is principal investigator of an elite corps of scientists and engineers, granted scarce resources and a high degree of autonomy by their desperate people, the Kaleds, in return for the promise of technologies to tip the balance and end their thousand year war with the neighbouring Thals.We first meet the Daleks of Skaro as survivors of a devastating nuclear war who have retreated into protective mechanized shells. We later learn that the tank-like shells and the extreme xenophobia exhibited by the creatures within them are both the result of technological intervention by an archetypal mad scientist named Davros. Davros is principal investigator of an elite corps of scientists and engineers, granted scarce resources and a high degree of autonomy by their desperate people, the Kaleds, in return for the promise of technologies to tip the balance and end their thousand year war with the neighbouring Thals.
Instead it turns out that Davros has been devoting most of his efforts towards finding – and weaponising - a form in which the Kaled race can live on beyond the end of the war.Instead it turns out that Davros has been devoting most of his efforts towards finding – and weaponising - a form in which the Kaled race can live on beyond the end of the war.
Thus the Daleks turn out to be the product of a military R&D project. Here on Earth war has indeed proved to be a major driver of technological development: in wartime, resources both material and human are thrown at technological problems in ways they rarely are in peacetime. And the Kaled Scientific Elite is clearly meant to evoke crash efforts during the Second World War to develop rocketry, on one side, and atomic weapons, on the other.Thus the Daleks turn out to be the product of a military R&D project. Here on Earth war has indeed proved to be a major driver of technological development: in wartime, resources both material and human are thrown at technological problems in ways they rarely are in peacetime. And the Kaled Scientific Elite is clearly meant to evoke crash efforts during the Second World War to develop rocketry, on one side, and atomic weapons, on the other.
But a more interesting question concerns the science and technology of the Daleks themselves, once they’ve left their Kaled origins behind. We know they become a space-faring (and later still time-faring) species, going on to conquer and enslave planets across the universe. No matter what defeats they suffer they always seem to bounce back. Ultimately they become so powerful they are able to bring the Time Lords themselves to the brink of defeat in the Last Great Time War. How does their technology progress to such a high level that they can outgun the oldest species in the Universe?But a more interesting question concerns the science and technology of the Daleks themselves, once they’ve left their Kaled origins behind. We know they become a space-faring (and later still time-faring) species, going on to conquer and enslave planets across the universe. No matter what defeats they suffer they always seem to bounce back. Ultimately they become so powerful they are able to bring the Time Lords themselves to the brink of defeat in the Last Great Time War. How does their technology progress to such a high level that they can outgun the oldest species in the Universe?
Two alternative understandings of what drives technological innovation are traditionally offered1. The first is that it is mainly pushed by the accumulation of potentially applicable scientific discoveries, and the second that it is largely pulled by the need to meet urgent needs and solve urgent problems.Two alternative understandings of what drives technological innovation are traditionally offered1. The first is that it is mainly pushed by the accumulation of potentially applicable scientific discoveries, and the second that it is largely pulled by the need to meet urgent needs and solve urgent problems.
We’ve already seen that the creation of the Daleks themselves was an example of a wartime ‘needs-pull’ dynamic. Assuming the Daleks are at permanent war with the universe, would this be enough to explain their technological progress? With sufficient material resources from the planets they conquer and sufficient Dalek engineers with sufficient skills and knowledge - perhaps genetically modified for the purpose - Dalek R&D could be expected to deliver great advances.We’ve already seen that the creation of the Daleks themselves was an example of a wartime ‘needs-pull’ dynamic. Assuming the Daleks are at permanent war with the universe, would this be enough to explain their technological progress? With sufficient material resources from the planets they conquer and sufficient Dalek engineers with sufficient skills and knowledge - perhaps genetically modified for the purpose - Dalek R&D could be expected to deliver great advances.
Assimilating the S&T knowledge of the species they conquer and reverse engineering their technological artefacts might help as well. However, this can be harder than it sounds because the tacit dimension of scientific and technological knowledge and skills puts a premium on learning by doing and learning by interacting. In any case, the characteristic xenophobia exhibited by the Daleks would probably lead them to dismiss the value of science and technology developed by others.Assimilating the S&T knowledge of the species they conquer and reverse engineering their technological artefacts might help as well. However, this can be harder than it sounds because the tacit dimension of scientific and technological knowledge and skills puts a premium on learning by doing and learning by interacting. In any case, the characteristic xenophobia exhibited by the Daleks would probably lead them to dismiss the value of science and technology developed by others.
In peacetime, here on Earth most resources are allocated to technological R&D by means of a mysterious invisible hand called ‘the market’ - though in truth enormous government subsidies support technological development and underpin the supply of researchers with advanced skills. In a situation of permanent war, and as a species with a highly developed sense of hierarchy and strong desire to follow – and give – orders, the Daleks presumably would opt for a highly planned economy of R&D and production.In peacetime, here on Earth most resources are allocated to technological R&D by means of a mysterious invisible hand called ‘the market’ - though in truth enormous government subsidies support technological development and underpin the supply of researchers with advanced skills. In a situation of permanent war, and as a species with a highly developed sense of hierarchy and strong desire to follow – and give – orders, the Daleks presumably would opt for a highly planned economy of R&D and production.
Needs-pull R&D is often seen as incremental improvement along a broadly understood trajectory, but ‘needs-pull’ research can also lead to fundamental advances in understanding where a particular piece of new knowledge is identified as necessary to contribute towards the solution of a problem. But could the Daleks really make repeated technological leaps in this way?Needs-pull R&D is often seen as incremental improvement along a broadly understood trajectory, but ‘needs-pull’ research can also lead to fundamental advances in understanding where a particular piece of new knowledge is identified as necessary to contribute towards the solution of a problem. But could the Daleks really make repeated technological leaps in this way?
The alternative explanation is that major Dalek technological advances come from the application of superior Dalek science. This raises the question: what would Dalek science look like? Do Dalek scientists work alone, or in groups? Large ones or small ones? Do they themselves select the research topics they want to work on, or are priorities set for them by their leaders? If a mixture of the two approaches is used, then who decides what balance is struck?The alternative explanation is that major Dalek technological advances come from the application of superior Dalek science. This raises the question: what would Dalek science look like? Do Dalek scientists work alone, or in groups? Large ones or small ones? Do they themselves select the research topics they want to work on, or are priorities set for them by their leaders? If a mixture of the two approaches is used, then who decides what balance is struck?
And how are results and new knowledge claims shared amongst and evaluated by the wider Dalek scientific community? How is tacit knowledge (e.g. about a new experimental technique) transferred from one Dalek to another? Perhaps all knowledge, experience and skills are shared wirelessly, in which case replication, fraud detection and technology transfer may not be the big issues for Daleks they are for humans.And how are results and new knowledge claims shared amongst and evaluated by the wider Dalek scientific community? How is tacit knowledge (e.g. about a new experimental technique) transferred from one Dalek to another? Perhaps all knowledge, experience and skills are shared wirelessly, in which case replication, fraud detection and technology transfer may not be the big issues for Daleks they are for humans.
In any case, even in a fictional universe, the material resources and brain power that can be allocated to research are not unlimited. According to what criteria does the relevant Dalek authority allocate resources amongst the different individual or groups of Dalek scientists? By retrospectively evaluating the quality/excellence or impact of their previous work, or by prospectively evaluating the promise of their proposed future research?In any case, even in a fictional universe, the material resources and brain power that can be allocated to research are not unlimited. According to what criteria does the relevant Dalek authority allocate resources amongst the different individual or groups of Dalek scientists? By retrospectively evaluating the quality/excellence or impact of their previous work, or by prospectively evaluating the promise of their proposed future research?
If science were simply the mining of hard facts and iron laws from the bedrock of reality through the consistent use of a universal method, and if technology were simply the straightforward application of those facts and principles, these questions would not arise: the methodical, relentless, culturally homogenous and hierarchical Daleks would be well placed to be scientific and technological leaders. It’s certainly hard to imagine that fraud is rife in the world of Dalek science. But it is equally hard to imagine there is much creativity, serendipitous discovery or radical innovation.If science were simply the mining of hard facts and iron laws from the bedrock of reality through the consistent use of a universal method, and if technology were simply the straightforward application of those facts and principles, these questions would not arise: the methodical, relentless, culturally homogenous and hierarchical Daleks would be well placed to be scientific and technological leaders. It’s certainly hard to imagine that fraud is rife in the world of Dalek science. But it is equally hard to imagine there is much creativity, serendipitous discovery or radical innovation.
On Earth, science and technology are materially-intensive collective enterprises through which knowledge claims and technologies are developed, tested, evaluated and communicated in processes which are at the same time systematic and unpredictable, competitive and collaborative, creative and critical, and which combine curiousity and serendipity with a strong sense of challenges to be met and problems to be solved. The collective and therefore social nature of these enterprises, and their material intensity, means that the ways they are organized and supported (and to what extent) is vital to their successful functioning. Supporting science and technology will always involve making choices. In the real world even the Daleks would need science policies.On Earth, science and technology are materially-intensive collective enterprises through which knowledge claims and technologies are developed, tested, evaluated and communicated in processes which are at the same time systematic and unpredictable, competitive and collaborative, creative and critical, and which combine curiousity and serendipity with a strong sense of challenges to be met and problems to be solved. The collective and therefore social nature of these enterprises, and their material intensity, means that the ways they are organized and supported (and to what extent) is vital to their successful functioning. Supporting science and technology will always involve making choices. In the real world even the Daleks would need science policies.
Kieron Flanagan teaches and studies science and technology policy at the University of Manchester - when not hiding behind the sofa. He can be found on Twitter as @kieronflanagan.Kieron Flanagan teaches and studies science and technology policy at the University of Manchester - when not hiding behind the sofa. He can be found on Twitter as @kieronflanagan.
1 These days it is widely accepted that both push and pull dynamics can be important, though the balance may be different in different cases or at different times for the same case.1 These days it is widely accepted that both push and pull dynamics can be important, though the balance may be different in different cases or at different times for the same case.
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